Country overview: Slovakia
- Situation summary
- Data sheet
- Barometer
Contents
- Drug use among the general population and young people
- Prevention
- Problem drug use
- Treatment demand
- Drug-related infectious diseases
- Drug-related deaths
- Treatment responses
- Harm reduction responses
- Drug markets and drug-related offences
- National drug laws
- National drug strategy
- Coordination mechanism in the field of drugs
- Drug-related research
| Year | Slovakia | EU (27 countries) | Source | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Population | 2010 | 5 424 925 | 501 105 661 p | Eurostat | |
| Population by age classes | 15–24 | 2010 | 14.5 % | 12.1 % p | Eurostat |
| 25–49 | 38.4 % | 35.8 % p | |||
| 50–64 | 19.5 % | 19.1 % p | |||
| GDP per capita in PPS (Purchasing Power Standards) 1 | 2009 | 73 | 100 | Eurostat | |
| Total expenditure on social protection (% of GDP) 2 | 2008 | 16.0 % p | 26.4 % p | Eurostat | |
| Unemployment rate 3 | 2010 | 14.4 % | 9.6 % | Eurostat | |
| Unemployment rate of population aged under 25 years | 2010 | 33.6 % | 20.9 % | Eurostat | |
| Prison population rate (per 100 000 of national population) 4 | 2009 | 169.4 | Council of Europe, SPACE I-2009 | ||
| At risk of poverty rate 5 | 2009 | 11.0 % | 16.3 % | SILC | |
p Eurostat provisional value.
1 Gross domestic product (GDP) is a measure of economic activity. It is defined as the value of all goods and services produced less the value of any goods or services used in their creation. The volume index of GDP per capita in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS) is expressed in relation to the European Union (EU-27) average set to equal 100. If the index of a country is higher than 100, this country's level of GDP per head is higher than the EU average and vice versa.
2 Expenditure on social protection contains: benefits, which consist of transfers, in cash or in kind to households and individuals to relieve them of the burden of a defined set of risks or needs.
3 Unemployment rates represent unemployed persons as a percentage of the labour force. Unemployed persons comprise persons aged 15 to 74 who were: (a) without work during the reference week; (b) currently available for work; (c) actively seeking work.
4 Situation of penal institutions on 1 September, 2009.
5 Share of persons aged 0+ with an equivalent disposable income below the at-risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set at 60 % of the national median equivalised disposable income (after social transfers).
Drug use among the general population and young people
In Slovakia, general population surveys have reported a continuous increase in lifetime prevalence of drug use among the general population. Surveys conducted in 1994 and 1996 showed that lifetime prevalence rates for any illicit drug in the general population increased by two thirds (from 6.2 % in 1994 to 10.4 % in 1996). Other survey cycles suggested that this sharp increase slowed in 1998, when the lifetime prevalence rate for all illicit drug use was reported at 10.8 %. In 2006, two surveys among the general population were carried out: one by the Public Opinion Research Institute (PORI) and the second one by the National Monitoring Centre for Drugs (NMCD) focused only on herbal cannabis use. Results of the PORI study indicate that lifetime prevalence of marijuana was 16.1 %, last year prevalence was 6.9 % and last month prevalence 2 %. These results show an increasing trend in the proportion of cannabis users. Results of the NMCD study indicated a lifetime prevalence of cannabis use of 11.7 %, 4.1 % for the last year prevalence and 1.7 % for the last month prevalence among people aged 15–64 years. In the 15–24–year-old age group, lifetime prevalence was reported at about 29 %, last year prevalence at 13.1 %, while last month prevalence, suggesting a stable pattern over recent years, was reported at around 5 %. Lifetime prevalence of any illicit drug was reported by 26 % of the sample. Ecstasy was ranked the second most prevalent drug in the 15–24–year-old age group, with lifetime prevalence at 4.3 %, last year prevalence at 1.6 % and last month prevalence at 0.5 %. Solvents or inhalants were reported with a lifetime prevalence of 1.7 %.
As in many other central and eastern European countries, the ESPAD national school surveys conducted repeated since 1995, showed an increase in illegal drug consumption among secondary school students aged 15–16. Lifetime experience with any illegal drug other than marijuana increased from 2 % in 1995 to 5 % in 1999 and 6 % in 2003. Lifetime prevalence rates for cannabis more than tripled from 9 % in 1995 to 19 % in 1999, 27 % in 2003 and 32 % in 2007. In 2007, this prevalence was reported by 37 % of males and 28 % of females. In 2007, last year prevalence of cannabis was reported by 24 % of the sample and 11 % reported a last month prevalence. The proportion of those who reported having used ecstasy at least once in their lives was 0 % in 1995, 2 % in 1999, 3 % in 2003 and 6 % in 2007. Lifetime prevalence rates for amphetamines remain unchanged in 1995 and 1999 (1 %) and increased to 2 % in 2007. Lifetime prevalence of inhalants increased from 9 % in 2003 to 13 % in 2007; lifetime prevalence of LSD was 2 % in 2003 and 4 % in 2007.
Prevention
Implementation of drug prevention in Slovakia falls under the responsibility of the key ministries concerned: Education, Health, Labour, Social Affairs and Family, and the Ministry of Interior. The main objectives and framework for drug prevention are defined in the ‘National Antidrug Strategy for the period 2009–12’, and prevention is one of the major priorities of the national strategy. This policy document within drug demand reduction concentrates on the following issues: (i) innovative approaches in the area of prevention and reduction of drug use or abuse-related damages; (ii) aiming efforts on the support of protective factors and a healthy lifestyle; (iii) reduction of legal and illegal drugs consumption by children and youth; (iv) creation of conditions for the active and meaningful use of leisure time; (v) preparation of preventative programmes and educational activities; (vi); enhancement of the information level and the improvement of the quality of support services, especially for risk groups.
Most prevention interventions are now centrally monitored. The key idea of universal prevention in Slovakia is to support, develop and strengthen children’s life skills and to promote their health. Universal drug prevention programmes in schools focus on alcohol, smoking, illegal drugs and risk behaviour. There are several standardised programmes now in place, for example a long-term, national prevention programme intended for pupils aged 12–15 years (the sixth to ninth year of elementary school or the first year of secondary school). It develops and strengthens psychological and social skills which can act as a protective factor (‘The way to emotional maturity’). It is estimated that about 8 % of students aged 12–15 years were involved in the program during the 2008/2009 school year, which is less than in the 2005/2006 school year. This decline is attributed to the recent prioritisation of other curricula topics and also shortages of trained teacher. Counselling services are provided within the education sector by newly created ´Pedagogical and psychological counselling centres´. In the school year 2008/2009, these centres carried in total 556 prevention programs for children and young people from the age of three years until age of 19. Prevention targeting families is limited and focuses mainly on information exchange and discussions. Community prevention programmes are targeted at recreational activities, such as the organisation of summer camps and sports activities for young people and children within leisure centres.
Selective prevention interventions are organised by health services and NGOs in recreational settings such as festivals, for children and young people residing in disadvantaged communities and marginalised families. Furthermore, for indicated prevention, specialised psychological counselling is also provided for families with drug addiction problems and for disruptive children in school settings.
Several national and local media campaigns, mainly targeted young people, are supported by the Government each year.
Problem drug use
The latest estimates for the problem drug user (PDU) population were calculated using the multiplier method, with data from users of harm reduction programmes aged from 15–64. Cocaine is used rarely in Slovakia, and so the definition is practically limited to intravenous drug users and regular users of opioids and/or pervitin (methamphetamine powder). In 2008, around 10 600 persons (8 200–33 500) were estimated to be problem drug users (2.7, 2.1–8.5 per 1 000 inhabitants). Estimates by drug were available: for the same year, users of opioids were estimated in the range of 4 000–9 800 (approximately 46 % of the estimated population of problem drug users) and users of pervitin 2 500–9 900. Practically all of the estimated problem drug users were injecting drug users, which may be partially related to the data source used in the study (low-threshold services).
The same method has been used for three consecutive years, yielding stable prevalence estimates.
The EMCDDA defines problem drug use as injecting drug use (IDU) or long duration/regular drug use of opiates, cocaine and/or amphetamines. Ecstasy and cannabis are not included in this category.
Treatment demand
In 2009, the Institute of Health Information and Statistics collected national treatment demand data from a total of 128 treatment centers comprising of outpatient and inpatient centers, and treatment centers in prison settings. In 2009, a total of 1 909 clients entered treatment, out of which 893 were first-time treatment clients. In 2008, a total of 2 056 clients entered treatment. The drop in the all treatment demand for 2009 is attributed mainly to a decrease of recorded treatment demands in prison settings, while the all treatment demand in the public system remained constant in comparison with 2008.
Among all clients entering treatment in 2009, the primary drug used was opioids, at 42.3 % of all treatment clients, followed by, 30.4 % for amphetamines (mainly methamphetamines) and 18.8 % for cannabis. Among first-time treatment clients, amphetamines were reported as the primary drug at 34.6 %, followed by 29.4 % for opioids and 28.9 % for cannabis.
In 2009, 45 % of all clients entering treatment were aged less than 25 years. A higher age distribution was reported among new treatment clients, with 58 % under the age of 25 years. With regards to gender distribution among all clients entering treatment, 80 % were male, whereas 20 % were female. A similar gender distribution was reported among new clients entering treatment at 81 % for male clients and 19 % for female clients.
Drug-related infectious diseases
No national estimates on drug-related infectious diseases are available for Slovakia. Long-term HIV/AIDS infection among injecting drug users is one of the lowest in the world. In 2009, one HIV positive case among injection drug users was reported.
The percentages of cases reporting with antibodies to the hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) among patients entering treatment for the first time at a Centre for the Treatment of Drug Dependency in Bratislava were 50.0 % for HCV and 21.6 % for HBV in 2009.
Drug-related deaths
The total number of drug-related deaths reported in 2008 was 25 cases (compared with 17 in 2007 and 20 in 2006). With regards to the distribution by age and gender, we may say that the majority of them were men (80 %) and the mean age was 33.2 years.
Treatment responses
The implementation of drug treatment is the responsibility of the Slovakian Government, and falls under the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. Treatment is mainly delivered through public specialised Centres for Treatment and Drug Dependencies, psychiatric hospitals, and psychiatric wards at university hospitals and general hospitals. Drug treatment is also provided by private. In Slovakia drug treatment is funded by public health insurance companies.
Specialised health services tailored to the emerging need for drug dependence treatment have been established in Slovakia since 1989. During the second half of the 1990s, private facilities also began to operate. Centres for the treatment of drug dependencies are the main provider of all types of drug treatment. Drug treatment can be divided into four phases: (i) pre-clinical treatment (ii) detoxification treatment (iii) psychosocial treatment and (iv) social reintegration. Outpatient treatment, as a systematic therapeutic service, is provided by physicians and psychologists, nurses and psychotherapists. Residential drug treatment is delivered in inpatient departments, at specialised dependency treatment departments of psychiatric hospitals, and in specialised psychiatric institutes, known as Centres for Treatment and Drug Dependencies. Detoxification treatment is available in outpatient and inpatient treatment centres, and is mainly provided by general psychiatric services. Services concerning aftercare and social reintegration for drug-dependent persons are provided by non-governmental organisations outside the healthcare sector, in residential facilities or as self-help groups.
Substitution maintenance treatment is provided by specialised drug addiction treatment offices. Methadone maintenance treatment is available since 1997 and buprenorphine since 1999. In 2008, the buprenorphine/naloxone combination was introduced and it may be prescribed by psychiatrists with an additional licence for treatment of drug dependencies or by psychiatrists working at Centres for the Treatment of Drug Dependencies.
In 2009, a total of 700 clients were in substitution treatment, 500 of whom were on methadone.
Harm reduction responses
Low-threshold services and outreach harm reduction programmes in Slovakia provide access to sterile injecting equipment and information on safer drug use, although coverage is limited: an estimated 21 % of problem drug users could be reached by existing low-threshold services. In 2009, there were five organisations running outreach needle and syringe exchange programmes (NSPs) in four towns. In three towns — Bratislava, Banská Bystrica and Košice — there were both types of outlets: mobile/outreach and stationary syringe exchange programmes. According to data available from independent exchange programmes provided by field services, treatment institutions and the K-centre, a total of 345 000 syringes was provided in 2009. Testing for infectious diseases of drug users who are not in contact with health care units (in treatment) is not regularly available, and most harm reduction organisations provide testing only occasionally.
Drug markets and drug-related offences
After 1989, Slovakia gradually became a transit point on the routes through which several drugs are illegally transported. In 2009, heroin was imported from Afghanistan or in smaller quantities produced from medicinal products containing morphine locally. .. Furthermore, a new trend in cocaine trafficking was detected in 2009, when predominately Nigerian citizens act as couriers for the substance and Bratislava airport is mainly used as transit point from other European cities to Austria. Ecstasy was imported mainly from Hungary, Poland, Austria and the Netherlands. Since 2006, mCPP, BZP and FP began to appear in the Slovak market. In 2009, mephedrone first appeared in the market and was sold through the Internet in powder or crystalline forms, or as powder-filled capsules.
In 2006, production of pervitin began to be produced in east Slovakia, and ephedrine for the production of pervitin was trafficked from Turkey, the Netherlands, Hungary or Poland by various organized groups. In previous years the production of pervitin was primarily carried out in small ‘kitchen laboratories’, however in 2009, occurrences of laboratories with high production capacity and also high quality of produced pervitin were registered. Commonly available pervitin produced in these laboratories reached an active substance concentration of over 50 %, however recently in some cases purity of seized pervitin reached above 80 %.
Herbal cannabis is mainly supplied by domestic growers of Vietnamese ethnic groups, however, the most recent trend indicates that it is aimed to be distributed not only in Slovakia but also in neighbouring countries.
In 2009, more than half of all drug seizures involved cannabis products and total of 1 kg of cannabis resin, 69 kg of herbal cannabis and the record amount of 2 590 kg of cannabis plants were seized. A total of 817 methamphetamine seizures resulted in 2.2 kg of substance was seized, which is the highest seized amount since the beginning of the century. In 2009, a small increase of heroin seized when compared to previous years was noticed (14 kg in 2009, 13 kg in 2008, 2 kg in 2007 and 13 kg in 2008, <1 kg in 2007). However the quantities of seized cocaine and ecstasy decreased significantly. In 2009, 7 kg of cocaine and 12 tablets of ecstasy were seized in comparison with 379 kg and 6 293 tablets of respective substances seized in 2008 .
In 2009, Slovakia reported a total of 1 079 drug-related offences, 57.5 % were use-related offences. More than half were related to cannabis, followed by methamphetamine and amphetamines, and heroin-related offences.
National drug laws
Since 2005, Section 171 of the Penal Code criminalises unauthorised possession for personal use according to the amount of drug possessed: up to three years’ imprisonment may be imposed for personal possession of an amount corresponding to a maximum of three times the usual single dose for personal use; up to five years may be imposed for personal possession of an amount corresponding to a maximum of 10 times the usual single dose for personal use. New penalties such as home imprisonment and community services may apply, though sentences of immediate imprisonment remain available as the ‘ultimum remedium’. Possession of any amount more than ten doses must be charged under Section 172.
Section 172 of the Penal Code lays down the penalty of 4–10 years’ imprisonment for personal possession of an amount of a drug larger than that mentioned in Section 171, as well as for drug trafficking, acquisition or production of drugs.
The penalty rises to a range of 10–15 years or 15–20 years, depending on the value involved and aggravating circumstances (repeated offence, involvement of minors) and up to 25 years if the crime was committed in the context of an organised group. Three convictions for certain serious offences may result in automatic imprisonment of 25 years or even life. The lower limit of criminal liability is now set at 14 years of age.
National drug strategy
Slovakia’s National anti-drug strategy for the period 2009–12 was adopted in April 2009. Its key objective is the reduction of drug abuse in society and its related risks and damage, the reduction of the supply with an emphasis on sanctioning the organised crime groups involved in illegal drug trafficking and enforcement of adherence to the law in connection with their production and distribution.
The strategy covers the following fields: demand reduction; supply reduction; coordination and cooperation; international cooperation; information, research and evaluation.
It is complemented by the Framework action plans with 23 specific objectives which set out the tasks formulated in the national programme to be carried out by relevant sectors and authorities.
Coordination mechanism in the field of drugs
The Board of Ministers for Drug Dependencies and Drug Control (BMDDDC) is the Government’s coordination, advisory, initiative-taking and control body for drug policy and drug control issues. It is chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister for knowledge-based society, European affairs, human rights and minorities, and includes 12 Ministers and the Public Prosecutor. The BMDDDC also has a permanent advisory body — the Inter-ministerial Drug Action Group — which was set up to deal with urgent problems, emergency situations and to ensure operational and practical cooperation. The General Secretariat (GS) of the BMDDDC acts as its executive arm, and the Director of the GS of the BMDDCC is the National Drugs Coordinator.
Until October 2006, coordination at the regional level, between local state administrations and local self-governing bodies, was carried out by the Regional Coordination Commission on Drugs, which acts as an advisory body to the head of the regional authority. In 2009–10, measures were taken to renew these positions and a decision was taken to establish a position of a coordinator on prevention of crime and other antisocial activities in each of the eight regions. It is expected that these persons would cover also coordination of activities pertaining to drug issues.
Drug-related research
The role of drug-related research and the use of research findings and best practices in the formulation and implementation of interventions are formally defined in the current national drug strategy. Funding is provided from the state budget, through the Ministry of Education, in the form of grants which may be intended for a specific research track, or may be provided to the research institution itself. Drug-related research is conducted mainly by governmental agencies, university departments and hospitals, and also by the Slovak Academy of Sciences. The national focal point has organised a database on research, including bibliographic references, which is available on its website. National scientific journals also play an important role in disseminating drug-related research findings. Recent drug-related studies mentioned in the 2010 Slovakian National report mainly focused on aspects related to prevalence of drug use and to responses to the drug situation. Current drug research in Slovakia is influenced by the very little sources allocated to it in a regular way which is a consequence of general restrictions on public expenditures. Furthermore, human resources are continuously decreasing in the field, either as a consequence of related weak economic conditions or of loss of the issue’s attractiveness.
